Throughout history, European powers established colonies worldwide, often ruling over these territories for centuries. This article explores the thirty countries that experienced the longest periods under European colonial rule, detailing the impact and legacy of these extended occupations.
1. Cape Verde (513 years under Portuguese rule, 1462–1975)
Cape Verde was discovered by Portuguese explorers in 1462 and remained a colony for over five centuries. The islands became a crucial hub for the transatlantic slave trade, facilitating the forced migration of Africans to the Americas. Over time, a unique Creole culture emerged, blending African and Portuguese influences in language, music, and traditions. Despite economic hardships and political challenges, Cape Verde transitioned peacefully to independence in 1975.
2. São Tomé and Príncipe (505 years under Portuguese rule, 1470–1975)
The Portuguese settled São Tomé and Príncipe in 1470, making them among the earliest European colonies in Africa. The islands became a center for sugar production in the 16th century and later cocoa, both dependent on enslaved labor. Portuguese rule was marked by exploitation and forced labor, with little investment in local development. The islands achieved independence in 1975, and today, they continue to grapple with economic challenges stemming from their colonial past.
3. Ghana (479 years under Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, and British rule, 1478–1957)
Ghana’s colonial history began with Portuguese traders in 1478, who built fortresses to control the gold trade. The Dutch, Danes, and British later established settlements, intensifying the transatlantic slave trade. By the 19th century, Britain consolidated control, naming the region the Gold Coast. Ghana was the first African country to gain independence in 1957, setting an example for other nations in the decolonization movement.
4. Jamaica (468 years under Spanish and British rule, 1494–1962)
Christopher Columbus landed in Jamaica in 1494, claiming it for Spain. The indigenous Taíno population was rapidly decimated due to disease and forced labor. In 1655, the British seized the island, transforming it into a major sugar-producing colony reliant on enslaved Africans. The brutal plantation economy fueled wealth for Britain but caused deep social inequalities. Jamaica remained under British control until it achieved independence in 1962, with a legacy of African heritage and colonial structures still shaping its society.
5. Trinidad and Tobago (464 years under Spanish and British rule, 1498–1962)
Colonized by Spain in 1498, Trinidad remained under Spanish rule until Britain seized control in 1797. Tobago changed hands multiple times between European powers before British consolidation in 1802. The islands developed a diverse population, with African, Indian, and European influences due to slavery and indentured labor. Trinidad and Tobago gained independence in 1962, with a vibrant multicultural heritage shaped by centuries of colonial rule.
6. Belize (458 years under Spanish and British rule, 1506–1964)
Initially claimed by Spain in the early 16th century, Belize remained largely unsettled by the Spanish, who struggled to maintain control. British settlers, known as Baymen, began exploiting the region’s rich timber resources in the 17th century, leading to frequent clashes with Spain. The British officially declared Belize a colony in 1862, and it remained under their rule until it gained self-governance in 1964. Full independence was later achieved in 1981, though British influence remains visible in the country’s legal and political systems.
7. Cuba (406 years under Spanish rule, 1492–1898)
Spain claimed Cuba in 1492, making it a major colonial outpost for nearly four centuries. The island played a crucial role in the Spanish Empire, particularly as a hub for sugar and tobacco exports. A series of uprisings against Spanish rule culminated in the Spanish-American War of 1898, leading to U.S. occupation. Cuba officially became independent in 1902 but remained under American influence for decades.
8. Angola (400 years under Portuguese rule, 1575–1975)
Portugal established a colonial presence in Angola in the late 16th century, using it as a key supplier of enslaved Africans to Brazil. The colony remained under Portuguese control for centuries, with forced labor, economic exploitation, and suppression of indigenous resistance. Angola’s struggle for independence was one of the most prolonged and violent in Africa, culminating in independence in 1975 after years of guerrilla warfare.
9. Guyana (387 years under Dutch and British rule, 1616–2003)
Dutch settlers first arrived in Guyana in 1616, but the British took control in 1814. The colony became an important plantation economy, reliant on enslaved Africans and later indentured laborers from India. British rule officially ended in 1966 with independence, but lingering colonial structures led to continued British influence until 2003. Guyana’s ethnic diversity, shaped by its colonial labor practices, remains central to its modern identity.
10. Dominican Republic (371 years under Spanish, French, and Haitian rule, 1492–1863)
The Dominican Republic was the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, established by Spain in 1492. The colony played a central role in early Spanish expansion in the New World. It later fell under French and Haitian control before regaining independence in 1863. The country’s history of colonial rule contributed to economic instability and social divisions that persisted long after independence.
11. Saint Kitts and Nevis (360 years under British rule, 1623–1983)
Saint Kitts was England’s first Caribbean colony, established in 1623, with Nevis following in 1628. The islands became key players in the sugar economy, with plantation slavery defining their history. Saint Kitts and Nevis remained under British rule for over three centuries, finally gaining independence in 1983 while maintaining strong Commonwealth ties.
12. Antigua and Barbuda (349 years under British rule, 1632–1981)
Antigua and Barbuda were colonized by the British in 1632, becoming important sugar-producing territories in the Caribbean. The plantation economy was built on enslaved African labor, and despite the abolition of slavery in 1834, economic disparities persisted. British rule lasted until 1981, when Antigua and Barbuda gained independence, though they remain part of the Commonwealth.
13. Indonesia (340 years under Dutch rule, 1602–1942, 1945–1949)
The Dutch East India Company began colonizing Indonesia in 1602, consolidating its power over the vast archipelago by the 19th century. The colony was a vital source of spices, coffee, and other goods, enriching the Netherlands at the expense of local populations. During World War II, Japan briefly occupied Indonesia (1942–1945), weakening Dutch control. After a fierce independence struggle, Indonesia finally secured its sovereignty in 1949.
14. Barbados (339 years under British rule, 1627–1966)
Barbados became a British colony in 1627, quickly developing a thriving sugarcane economy that relied heavily on enslaved labor. It remained under British control for over three centuries, even as other Caribbean territories changed hands. After a gradual push for self-governance, Barbados gained full independence in 1966, later severing ties with the British monarchy in 2021 to become a republic.
15. East Timor (333 years under Portuguese rule, 1642–1975)
Portugal established its presence in East Timor in 1642, making it one of the longest-held European colonies in Southeast Asia. The territory was an important hub in the global trade network, though it remained underdeveloped. After declaring independence in 1975, East Timor was invaded by Indonesia and endured another 27 years of occupation before finally achieving full independence in 2002.
16. Philippines (333 years under Spanish rule, 1565–1898)
Spain established its rule over the Philippines in 1565, integrating it into its global empire for over three centuries. The country became an important trade center, connecting Asia and the Americas via the Manila Galleon route. The Spanish introduced Christianity and European governance, deeply shaping Filipino culture. In 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States after losing the Spanish-American War, with full independence only coming in 1946.
17. Saint Lucia (329 years under French and British rule, 1650–1979)
Saint Lucia was originally settled by the French in 1650 but changed hands between the British and French at least 14 times before Britain took full control in 1814. The island played a strategic role in colonial conflicts and was central to the sugar trade. British rule lasted until 1979, when Saint Lucia gained independence.
18. Suriname (308 years under Dutch rule, 1667–1975)
Originally colonized by the British, Suriname was exchanged with the Netherlands in 1667. It became an important plantation colony, relying on enslaved Africans and later indentured laborers from Asia. Dutch control persisted until 1975, when Suriname gained independence, though it retains close cultural and economic ties with the Netherlands.
19. Dominica (305 years under French and British rule, 1671–1978)
Colonized by France in 1671, Dominica was later contested by the British, who officially took control in 1763. The island’s mountainous terrain allowed some indigenous Caribs to resist European domination longer than in other Caribbean territories. British rule lasted until 1978, when Dominica became independent, though it remains a Commonwealth nation.
20. Panama (303 years under Spanish rule, 1513–1816)
Panama was a crucial part of the Spanish Empire from 1513, serving as a key transit point for wealth extracted from South America. The isthmus became a major trade route, with gold and silver transported across it en route to Spain. After independence in 1816, Panama joined Gran Colombia before becoming a sovereign nation in 1903, following U.S. intervention.
21. Honduras (298 years under Spanish rule, 1524–1821)
Honduras was part of the Spanish Empire for nearly three centuries, serving as a key mining center during the colonial period, particularly for silver extraction. The Spanish exploited indigenous labor through the encomienda system, leading to significant demographic and cultural changes. Honduras declared independence in 1821 along with the rest of Central America but experienced political instability in the post-colonial era.
22. Guatemala (298 years under Spanish rule, 1524–1821)
Guatemala was a major administrative and economic center of Spain’s colonial rule in Central America. The Spanish established a rigid social hierarchy and relied heavily on indigenous labor for agriculture and mining. Guatemala declared independence in 1821 and later became the core of the Federal Republic of Central America before emerging as a separate nation.
23. Colombia (296 years under Spanish rule, 1536–1831)
Colombia played a central role in the Spanish Empire, with Bogotá serving as an administrative capital for the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The colony prospered due to its gold resources and trade networks. Colombia fought for independence, achieving it in 1819 under Simón Bolívar’s leadership, with full sovereignty consolidated in 1831.
24. Ecuador (295 years under Spanish rule, 1534–1829)
Ecuador was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru before joining the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The region was exploited for its agriculture and indigenous labor systems. After Spanish rule ended in 1829, Ecuador briefly joined Gran Colombia before becoming an independent republic.
25. El Salvador (294 years under Spanish rule, 1525–1819)
El Salvador’s colonial economy was based on agriculture, particularly indigo production. The Spanish imposed a strict caste system, which marginalized the indigenous population. The country declared independence in 1821, later joining and eventually separating from the Federal Republic of Central America.
26. Peru (292 years under Spanish rule, 1532–1824)
Peru was the heart of Spain’s South American empire, with Lima as the seat of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The colony’s wealth, particularly from silver mines like Potosí, fueled Spain’s economy. Peru’s independence movement culminated in 1824 with decisive battles led by Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.
27. Brazil (290 years under Portuguese rule, 1500–1790)
Brazil was Portugal’s most important colony, serving as a major sugar, gold, and coffee producer. The Portuguese exploited indigenous and African enslaved labor to fuel the economy. By 1815, Brazil was elevated to the status of a kingdom within the Portuguese empire, marking an important step toward self-governance. It declared independence in 1822 under Emperor Dom Pedro I, establishing itself as an independent empire.
28. Chile (278 years under Spanish rule, 1540–1818)
Spain colonized Chile in the 16th century, encountering strong resistance from the indigenous Mapuche people, who fought prolonged wars against European rule. The colony played a strategic role in Spanish trade networks but was relatively isolated compared to other South American territories. After nearly three centuries of rule, Chile declared its independence in 1818, led by figures like Bernardo O’Higgins and José de San Martín.
29. Paraguay (275 years under Spanish rule, 1537–1811)
Paraguay was a relatively isolated Spanish colony, contributing to its distinct cultural identity. It was known for the Jesuit Reductions, which created self-sustaining indigenous communities under the guidance of Jesuit missionaries. Unlike many other colonies, Paraguay was one of the first to push for independence, declaring sovereignty in 1811 under José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, who later established an autocratic rule.
30. Bolivia (267 years under Spanish rule, 1545–1822)
Bolivia was a crucial part of the Spanish Empire, particularly due to the rich silver mines of Potosí, which provided immense wealth to Spain. The forced labor system, including indigenous mita labor, was heavily exploited. After years of struggle and influence from independence movements across South America, Bolivia finally secured its independence in 1825, with Simón Bolívar playing a key role in its liberation.
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